Prevalence of Varroa mites (Varroa destructor Anderson & Trueman) and bee lice (Bruala coeca Nitzsch) in honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) colonies in Libya.

Background: Primary key pest affecting the apiculture business in many areas of the globe is the ecto parasite Varroa mite (Varroa destructor), recently, bee lice have become a considerable bee pest. Aim: In this study, the ecto parasites that infest honey bees, were investigated during the spring of 2013. Methods: A total of 66 apiaries were investigated from different geographical regions in Libya: 34 apiaries from the southern region, 21 apiaries from the north-eastern region, and 11 apiaries from the north-western region. Three bee colonies were randomly chosen from each apiary (316 colonies). From each colony, 300 worker bees were taken as samples, put in container filled with 100 ml of alcohol, and transported to the Honey bee Laboratory-Plant Protection Department at the University of Tripoli's. The parasites were separated from the bees and identified, and the infestation rates were calculated. Results: The study of the parasite distribution clearly showed that Varroa mites were present in all regions. However, the degree of mite density varies not only between apiaries but also between colonies in the same apiary, while the bee louse, Barulla coeca, was detected in 23.1% and 5.8% of apiaries in the western region and southern region of Libya, respectively. On the other hand, all the inspected apiaries in the northern region were not infested. Conclusion: Lack of knowledge about honey bee parasites, poor management practices, and the lack of proper distance between hives of migrated apiaries have been attributed as the possible reason for the spread of these two parasites, especially the Varroa mites in the country.

Therapeutic potential of vitamin D against bisphenol A-induced spleen injury in Swiss albino mice.

Bisphenol A (BPA), a ubiquitous plasticizer, is capable of producing oxidative splenic injury, and ultimately led to spleen pathology. Further, a link between VitD levels and oxidative stress was reported. Hence the role of VitD in BPA-induced oxidative splenic injury was investigated in this study. Sixty male and female Swiss albino mice (3.5 weeks old) were randomly divided into control and treated groups 12 mice in each (six males and six females). The control groups were further divided into sham (no treatment) and vehicle (sterile corn oil), whereas the treatment group was divided into VitD (2,195 IU/kg), BPA (50 µg/kg), and BPA+VitD (50 µg/kg + 2,195 IU/kg) groups. For six weeks, the animals were dosed intraperitoneally (i.p). One week later, at 10.5 weeks old, mice were sacrificed for biochemical and histological analyses. Findings showed BPA triggered neurobehavioral abnormalities and spleen injury with increased apoptotic indices (e.g. DNA fragmentation) in both sexes. A significant increase was found in lipid peroxidation marker, MDA in splenic tissue, and leukocytosis. Conversely, VitD treatment altered this scenario into motor performance preservation, reducing oxidative splenic injury with a decrease in the percent apoptotic index. This protection was significantly correlated with preserving leukocyte counts and reduced MDA levels in both genders. It can be concluded from the above findings that VitD treatment has an ameliorative effect on oxidative splenic injury induced by BPA, highlighting the continuous crosstalk between oxidative stress and the VitD signaling pathway.

Vitamin D ameliorates liver pathology in mice caused by exposure to endocrine disruptor bisphenol A.

Background: Increasing evidence suggests that bisphenol A (BPA) induces liver pathological changes. Further, an association between BPA and circulating vitamin D (VitD) levels were documented. Aim: The role of VitD in BPA-induced liver pathological changes was explored in this study. Methods: Healthy 4.5-week-old male (n = 35) and female (n = 35) Swiss albino mice were used in this study. The animals were randomly divided into control and treated groups. The control groups were further divided into sham (no treatment) and vehicle (corn oil), whereas the treated groups were also divided into VitD (2195 U/kg), BPA (50 µg/kg), and BPA + VitD (50 µg/kg + 2195 U/kg) groups. For 6 weeks (twice a week), the animals were dosed intraperitoneally. One week later (at 10.5-weeks-old), the animals were sacrificed for biochemical and histological analyses. Results: BPA produced a considerable rise in the body and liver weights in both genders of mice when compared to control mice. BPA also caused significant increases in the liver damage markers alanine transaminase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT). It also induced liver histopathological changes, including higher apoptotic indices in both genders. On the other hand, treatment with VitD considerably reduced liver damage and slightly decreased the apoptotic index rate. The ALP, ALT, and GGT levels were also markedly reduced. VitD has been proven to have a protective effect on both genders. Conclusions: According to our findings, VitD protects mice from BPA-induced liver damage, possibly via suppressing liver damage markers.

Assessment of expertise in morphological identification of mosquito species (Diptera, Culicidae) using photomicrographs.

Accurate identification of insect species is an indispensable and challenging requirement for every entomologist, particularly if the species is involved in disease outbreaks. The European MediLabSecure project designed an identification (ID) exercise available to any willing participant with the aim of assessing and improving knowledge in mosquito taxonomy. The exercise was based on high-definition photomicrographs of mosquitoes (26 adult females and 12 larvae) collected from the western Palaearctic. Sixty-five responses from Europe, North Africa and the Middle East were usable. The study demonstrated that the responders were better at identifying females (82% correct responses) than larvae (63%). When the responders reported that they were sure of the accuracy of their ID, the success rate of ID increased (92% for females and 88% for larvae). The top three tools used for ID were MosKeyTool (72% of responders), the ID key following Becker et al. [2010. Mosquitoes and their control, 2nd edn. Berlin: Springer] (38%), and the CD-ROM of Schaffner et al. [2001. Les moustiques d'Europe: logiciel d'identification et d'enseignement - The mosquitoes of Europe: an identification and training programme. Montpellier: IRD; EID] (32%), while other tools were used by less than 10% of responders. Responders reporting the identification of mosquitoes using the MosKeyTool were significantly better (80% correct responses) than non-MosKeyTool users (69%). Most responders (63%) used more than one ID tool. The feedback from responders in this study was positive, with the exercise being perceived as halfway between educational training and a fun quiz. It raised the importance of further expanding training in mosquito ID for better preparedness of mosquito surveillance and control programmes.

Title: Évaluation de l'expertise en identification morphologique des espèces de moustiques (Diptera, Culicidae) à l'aide de photomicrographies. Abstract: L'identification précise des espèces d'insectes est une exigence indispensable et difficile pour tout entomologiste, en particulier si l'espèce est impliquée dans des épidémies. Le projet européen MediLabSecure a conçu un exercice d'identification (ID) accessible à tout participant volontaire dans le but d'évaluer et d'améliorer les connaissances en taxonomie des moustiques. L'exercice était basé sur des photomicrographies haute définition de moustiques (26 femelles adultes et 12 larves) prélevées dans le Paléarctique occidental. Soixante-cinq réponses d'Europe, d'Afrique du Nord et du Moyen-Orient ont été utilisables. L'étude a démontré que les répondants étaient meilleurs pour identifier les femelles (82 % de réponses correctes) que les larves (63 %). Lorsque les répondants ont déclaré être sûrs de l'exactitude de leur ID, le taux de réussite de l'identification était meilleur (92 % pour les femelles et 88 % pour les larves). Les trois principaux outils utilisés pour les ID étaient MosKeyTool (72 % des répondants), la clé d'identification du livre de Becker et al. (38%) et le CD-ROM de Schaffner et al. (32 %), tandis que d'autres outils étaient utilisés par moins de 10 % des répondants. Les répondants déclarant identifier des moustiques à l'aide de MosKeyTool étaient significativement meilleurs (80 % de réponses correctes) que les non-utilisateurs de MosKeyTool (69 %). La plupart des répondants (63 %) ont utilisé plus d'un outil d'identification. Les commentaires des répondants de cette étude ont été positifs, l'exercice étant perçu comme à mi-chemin entre une formation pédagogique et un quiz amusant. Il a souligné l'importance d'étendre la formation complémentaire à l'identification des moustiques pour une meilleure préparation des programmes de surveillance et de contrôle des moustiques.

Seroprevalence study of Toscana virus in Yafran area, Libya.

BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVES: In Mediterranean countries, infection of Toscana virus is a public health problem during the summer season, related to sandflies activity; it may cause aseptic meningitis and mild meningoencephalitis. We investigated the presence of antibodies (IgG) against the Toscana virus in the sera of individuals living in the area of Yafran, Libya. METHODS: During the period from December 2013 to February 2014, a total of 232 sera samples were collected from Yefran hospital. Demographic information of participants collected in a questionnaire; samples were analyzed by the serological method of enzyme-linked immunoassays specific for Toscana IgG antibodies. RESULTS: Seroprevalence of IgG antibodies among samples was 25% (n = 232). Seroprevalence varied among genders, age groups. The differences were not statically significant. INTERPRETATION & CONCLUSION: Our findings indicate and confirm local circulation of the Toscana virus. It also indicates that TOSV infection is neglected, and needs to be considered as one of the causes of meningitis or meningoencephalitis.

Species diversity of ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) in Tarhuna, Libya.

Background: Twenty-five species of ticks have been recorded in Libya. No systematic studies have been conducted in Tarhuna region regarding tick species that infest livestock. Aim: To identify the species of ticks that infest livestock in Tarhuna, Libya. Methods: The study was carried out from August 2015 to May 2016 in Tarhuna, which is located in northwestern Libya. A total of 634 ticks (349 males, 280 females, and 5 nymphs) were collected from 145 randomly selected animals (camels, sheep, and goats). Samples were collected seasonally from different locations. Results: Four species of ticks were recorded: Hyalomma dromedarii (83.12%), Rhipicephalus bursa (6.94%), Hyalomma excavatum (6.63%), and Rhipicephalus camicasi (3.31%). The mean prevalence of all species was 4.37 ticks/host. All of the tick species were collected from sheep and goats, except H. dromedarii which was collected from camels only. With respect to the season of collection, the number of species varied among seasons; the highest prevalence was in summer (6.53 ticks\host) and the lowest was in spring (2.18 ticks\host). The highest average number of tick species was observed in H. dromedarii (10.13 ticks/host), followed by 1.21 ticks/host in R. camicasi, 1.07 ticks/host in H. excavatum, and the lowest in R. bursa (1.02 tick/host). Conclusions: These findings reveal that the abundance of ticks varied among species and seasons.

Flea infestation on small wild mammals in Gharyan, Northwest Libya.

Background: Fleas play a major role as vectors for many pathogens that affect humans and livestock. Wild animals, especially wild rodents, are the most important hosts, acting as reservoir hosts for many flea species and pathogens. Aim: This study aimed to identify seasonality and hosts of fleas that parasitize small wild mammals in Gharyan, north-western Libya. Methods: Fleas were collected from seasonally infested hosts from summer 2017 to winter 2018. Results: This survey identified three flea species: Pulex irritans, Xenopsylla cheopis, and Leptopsylla segnis. Pulex irritans was collected from porcupines, X. cheopis from hedgehogs and jerboas, whereas L. segnis from gundis. The highest flea prevalence was in porcupines (35.00%) and the lowest was in gundis (11.11%). The highest intensity was in porcupines (10.43 ± 4.37), and the lowest was in jerboas (1.28 ± 0.24). The highest mean flea abundance was among porcupines of 3.65, whereas in hedgehogs, jerboas and gundis were less than 0.50 flea/host. Pulex irritans was collected during all seasons, while X. cheopis was collected during all seasons except winter, whereas L. segnis was collected only in spring. Conclusion: The finding in this study has increased our awareness that small wild mammals can act as hosts for medically important flea species. All collected flea species have a great specialty in choosing their hosts. Flea intensity is affected by seasonal variations.

Exposure to low-dose bisphenol A induces spleen damage in a murine model: Potentially through oxidative stress?

Background: During early life, exposure to environmental toxicants, including endocrine disruptor bisphenol A (BPA), can be detrimental to the immune system. To our knowledge, a few researches have looked at the effects of developing BPA exposures on the spleen. Aim: The murine model was developed to investigate the underlying molecular mechanisms and mode of BPA actions on the spleen subsequent to prolonged early-life exposure to BPA. Methods: Immature (3-week-old) male and female Swiss Albino mice were intraperitoneally injected with 50 µg/kg BPA in corn oil or corn oil alone for 6 weeks. Mouse spleens were harvested and examined histologically at 10 weeks old (adulthood). Results: We observed neurobehavioral impairments and a significant increase in peripheral monocyte and lymphocyte counts in mice (males and females). Moreover, several spleen abnormalities in both male and female mice were observed in adulthood. BPA-treated mice's histopathological results revealed toxicity in the form of significantly active germinal centers of the white pulp and a few apoptotic cells. There was also a notable invasion of the red pulp by eosinophils and lymphocytes that were significantly higher than normal. Agarose gel electrophoresis provided further evidence of internucleosomal DNA fragmentation and apoptosis in the splenic tissues of BPA-treated mice compared to controls. In addition, there were increased levels of the lipid peroxidation malondialdehyde end-product, a marker of oxidative lipid damage, in the spleens of BPA-treated mice compared to controls. Conclusion: Our study provides evidence that oxidative stress injury induced by early-life exposures to BPA could contribute to a range of splenic tissue damages during adulthood.

Vitamin D mitigates adult onset diseases in male and female mice induced by early-life exposure to endocrine disruptor BPA.

Background: During early development, environmental compounds can induce adult onset diseases and disrupt the circulating vitamin D (VitD) levels. Aim: This study aimed to examine the protective role of VitD against the adverse effects of BPA on male and female mice. Methods: A total of 60 male and female Swiss Albino mice (3 weeks old) were randomly divided into 5 groups; each consisted of 12 mice (6 males and 6 females) and was treated as follows: Group I received no treatment (sham control); Group II, sterile corn oil only (vehicle control); Group III, BPA (400 µg/kg); Group IV, VitD (2,195 IU/kg); and Group V, BPA + VitD. At 10.5 weeks, the animals were sacrificed to conduct histological examinations. Results: BPA-exposed mice were found to have neurobehavioral abnormalities, heart, kidney, and lung diseases with increased apoptotic indices in both sexes. On the other hand, the treatment of BPA mice with VitD altered this scenario with modulated motor activity, enhanced body and organ weights, and preserved the heart, kidney, and lung architecture, alongside a decreased percent apoptotic index. Conclusion: Our findings illustrate that VitD protects mice against BPA-induced heart, kidney, and lung abnormalities.

Towards harmonisation of entomological surveillance in the Mediterranean area.

BACKGROUND: The Mediterranean Basin is historically a hotspot for trade, transport, and migration. As a result, countries surrounding the Mediterranean Sea share common public health threats. Among them are vector-borne diseases, and in particular, mosquito-borne viral diseases are prime candidates as (re)emerging diseases and are likely to spread across the area. Improving preparedness and response capacities to these threats at the regional level is therefore a major issue. The implementation of entomological surveillance is, in particular, of utmost importance. Guidance in designing entomological surveillance systems is critical, and these systems may pursue different specific objectives depending on the disease. The purpose of the proposed review is to draw up guidelines for designing effective and sustainable entomological surveillance systems in order to improve preparedness and response. However, we make it clear that there is no universal surveillance system, so the thinking behind harmonisation is to define evidence-based standards in order to promote best practises, identify the most appropriate surveillance activities, and optimise the use of resources. Such guidance is aimed at policymakers and diverse stakeholders and is intended to be used as a framework for the implementation of entomological surveillance programmes. It will also be useful to collaborate and share information with health professionals involved in other areas of disease surveillance. Medical entomologists and vector control professionals will be able to refer to this report to advocate for tailored entomological surveillance strategies. The main threats targeted in this review are the vectors of dengue virus, chikungunya virus, Zika virus, West Nile virus, and Rift Valley fever virus. The vectors of all these arboviruses are mosquitoes. METHODS: Current knowledge on vector surveillance in the Mediterranean area is reviewed. The analysis was carried out by a collaboration of the medical entomology experts in the region, all of whom belong to the MediLabSecure network, which is currently funded by the European Union and represents an international effort encompassing 19 countries in the Mediterranean and Black Sea region. FINDINGS: Robust surveillance systems are required to address the globalisation of emerging arboviruses. The prevention and management of mosquito-borne viral diseases must be addressed in the prism of a One Health strategy that includes entomological surveillance as an integral part of the policy. Entomological surveillance systems should be designed according to the entomological and epidemiological context and must have well-defined objectives in order to effect a tailored and graduated response. We therefore rely on different scenarios according to different entomological and epidemiological contexts and set out detailed objectives of surveillance. The development of multidisciplinary networks involving both academics and public authorities will provide resources to address these health challenges by promoting good practises in surveillance (identification of surveillance aims, design of surveillance systems, data collection, dissemination of surveillance results, evaluation of surveillance activities) and through the sharing of effective knowledge and information. These networks will also contribute to capacity building and stronger collaborations between sectors at both the local and regional levels. Finally, concrete guidance is offered on the vector of the main arbovirus based on the current situation in the area.

Presence of Sergentomyia (Parrotomyia) lewisi (Diptera: Psychodidae) in Tunisia.

In Tunisia, 17 phlebotomine sand fly species are reported, belonging to genera Phlebotomus and Sergentomyia. However, subsequent to faunal studies and outbreaks of leishmaniasis in different regions of the country, unrecognized sand fly species could exist. Indeed, we report in this study the presence of Sergentomyia (Parrotomyia) lewisiParrot 1948. A brief collection of phlebotomine sand flies was undertaken in August 2016 in Khbina locality, in Sidi Bouzid governorate situated in Central Tunisia, which constitutes an old focus of Zoonotic Cutaneous Leishmaniasis. Sand flies were collected, using CDC light traps that were placed overnight, in different biotopes (inside habitations, outdoors, and within animal shelters). Specimens were collected and morphologically identified. Measurements were taken with an ocular micrometer. Two female specimens of the species Se. (Parrotomyia) lewisi were collected. One specimen is here described and measured. A comparison of its taxonomic characters to the holotype from Sudan and a specimen from Algeria is also presented. This species was until now only reported from Sudan, Ethiopia, Algeria, and Morocco. It is here described for the first time in Tunisia, which raises the Tunisian sand fly fauna to seven subgenera and 18 species.

Identification of mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae): an external quality assessment of medical entomology laboratories in the MediLabSecure Network.

BACKGROUND: Identification of vectors is of prime importance in the field of medical entomology for both operational and research purposes. An external quality assessment of mosquito identification capacities was carried out within the MediLabSecure Network, which is composed of laboratories located in 19 countries close to the European Union around the Mediterranean and Black seas. METHODS: A set of blind samples consisting of 7 or 8 adult mosquitoes and 4 larvae was given to each participant laboratory. In all, 138 adult mosquitoes and 76 larvae of different species were distributed for genus and species identification. RESULTS: All identifications were exclusively morphology based. Overall, 81% of identifications were correct at the genus level, 64% at the species level. The results were highly varied among the 19 participating laboratories. The levels of correct identifications were: 100% (three laboratories), 90-95% (four laboratories), 50-75% (six laboratories) and < 50% (six laboratories). CONCLUSIONS: This evaluation showed the need to maintain efforts in capacity building and quality control in the field of medical entomology and, more specifically, in the morphological identification of the Culicidae.

A human case of urogenital myiasis caused by Psychoda sp. larvae in Tripoli, Libya

Urogenital myiasis caused by Psychoda spp. involving human are very rare and present with unusual symptoms. Larvae belonging to Psychoda sp. (Diptera: Psychodidae) were found in the urogenital tract of a 9-year-old girl, who lives in Tajoura, Libya, and had suffered from genital pruritus and moving larvae in urine. This is the first record of such case in Libya.

Prevalence of IgG antibodies for the West Nile virus in human population in Tripoli, Libya.

BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVES: West Nile fever (WNF) is a mosquito-borne viral infection, circulated in natural cycles between birds and mosquitoes, particularly Culex species. It is transmitted to humans through mosquito bites, and causes a variety of clinical outcomes, ranging from asymptomatic or mild febrile illness to severe men in go encepha- litis with some fatalities observed in older or immunocompromised patients. West Nile virus (WNV) transmission is considerably influenced by environmental conditions; and abundance of avifauna and mosquitoes.There are very few reports on WNV exposure in individuals from Tripoli City in Libya. The main objective was to provide basic epidemiological information about the WNV seroprevalence in the human population of Tripoli. METHODS: A total of 400 serum samples were collected from persons (123 females, 277 males; age range: 15-78 yr) approaching the Tripoli Reference Laboratory for the purpose of obtaining health certificate; during the period from August to October 2013. The presence of WNV IgG antibodies was evaluated by a commercial kit based on WNV immunoglobulin G (IgG) enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). RESULTS: It was observed that 2.75% (11/400) samples were found reactive in the WNV ELISA assay. This result suggests that WNV has a low prevalence in the study area. INTERPRETATION & CONCLUSION: Seropositivity rates of WNV in Tripoli region of Libya were low. However, continu- ous monitoring of population is important to keep track of the disease prevalence, risk factors, reservoir hosts and vectors for better understaning of the disease epidemiology and designing appropriate control strategies.

Surveillance of Arthropod-Borne Viruses and Their Vectors in the Mediterranean and Black Sea Regions Within the MediLabSecure Network.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Arboviruses, viruses transmitted by arthropods such as mosquitoes, ticks, sandflies, and fleas are a significant threat to public health because of their epidemic and zoonotic potential. The geographical distribution of mosquito-borne diseases such as West Nile (WN), Rift Valley fever (RVF), Dengue, Chikungunya, and Zika has expanded over the last decades. Countries of the Mediterranean and Black Sea regions are not spared. Outbreaks of WN are repeatedly reported in the Mediterranean basin. Human cases of RVF were reported at the southern borders of the Maghreb region. For this reason, establishing the basis for the research to understand the potential for the future emergence of these and other arboviruses and their expansion into new geographic areas became a public health priority. In this context, the European network "MediLabSecure" gathering laboratories in 19 non-EU countries from the Mediterranean and Black Sea regions seeks to improve the surveillance (of animals, humans, and vectors) by reinforcing capacity building and harmonizing national surveillance systems to address this important human and veterinary health issue. The aim of this review is to give an exhaustive overview of arboviruses and their vectors in the region. RECENT FINDINGS: The data presented underline the importance of surveillance in the implementation of more adapted control strategies to combat vector-borne diseases. Partner laboratories within the MediLabSecure network present a wide range of infrastructures and have benefited from different training programs. SUMMARY: Although reporting of arboviral presence is not carried out in a systematic manner, the expansion of the area where arboviruses are present cannot be disputed. This reinforces the need for increasing surveillance capacity building in this region to prevent future emergences.

Field Evaluation of Outdoor Ultra-Low Volume (ULV) Applications against Phlebotomine Sand Flies (Diptera: Psychodidae) in Al Rabta, North-West of Libya.

BACKGROUND: Al Rabta is a rural area in the North-West of Libya that represents an important focus of zoonotic cutaneous leishmaniasis. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of Ultra Low Volume (ULV) applications in controlling sand flies and its impact on leishmaniasis transmission in this area. METHODS: Two neighboring villages were selected: Al Rabta West (RW) as cypermethrin treated village and Al Rabta East (RE) as check one. The ULV was evaluated through 3 spraying cycles during Apr, Jun and Sep 2013. In the two villages, a number of outdoor sites were selected for sampling of sand flies (twice a month) using the CDC light traps. The cases of CL reported in the two villages during the study period were obtained from Al Rabta health center. RESULTS: The two villages were similar where 9 species of sand flies (6 of Phlebotomu and 3 of Sergentomyia) were collected of which S. minuta and P. papatasi were the abundant species. As compared to the pre- ULV spraying, during the post- spraying periods: i) the reduction in abundance of the different species ranged from 20.85 to 77.52% with 46.69% as an overall reduction for all species altogether and, ii) in significantly (P> 0.05) higher mean ratio of males: females for all species altogether (1:2.41). Moreover, ULV spraying resulted in the absence of CL (Leishmania major) cases (Passive Case Detection). CONCLUSION: The efficiency of ULV spraying in reducing sand fly population, CL cases and consequently limits the disease transmission.

Entomological studies of phlebotomine sand flies (Diptera: Psychodidae) in relation to cutaneous leishmaniasis transmission in Al Rabta, North West of Libya.

Al Rabta in the North-West of Libya is a rural area where cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) is endemic for long time. Few reports are available on sand flies in this area which is an important focus of CL. Therefore, this study aimed at updating the species composition, and monthly fluctuation of sand flies in this area. Sand flies were biweekly collected by CDC light traps from June to November 2012 and April to November 2013 in two villages, Al Rabta East (RE) and Al Rabta West (RW). Nine species (6 Phlebotomus and 3 Sergentomyia) were reported in the two villages. A total of 5605 and 5446 flies were collected of which Phlebotomus represented 59.30 and 56.63% in RE and RW, respectively. Sergentomyia minuta and Phlebotomus papatasi were the abundant species. Generally, more males were collected than females for all species. The overall ratios (males: females) for most of species were not deviated from the expected 1:1 ratio (Chi-squared, P>0.05). Sand fly abundance (fly/trap) is directly related to the temperature and RH (P<0. 01) while it inversely related to wind velocity (P>0.05). Flies were active from April to November with increased activity from June to October. Prominent peaks were in September and June. The abundance of P. papatasi and Phlebotomus sergenti, vectors of CL (August-October) coincided with the reported higher numbers of CL cases (August- November). The obtained results could be important for the successful planning and implementation of leishmaniasis control programs.

External morphological anomalies in ixodid ticks from Thrace, Turkey.

Of 18,667 ticks examined, 33 specimens from species identified as Haemaphysalis parva, Hyalomma marginatum, Hy. scupense, Rhipicephalus bursa and Rh. turanicus were found to have external morphological anomalies. Anomalous Ha. parva, Hy. scupence and Rh. turanicus were reported in this study for the first time. General anomalies manifested as asymmetry and deformations of the idiosoma, whereas local anomalies occurred in legs, exoskeleton, spiracular, adanal, subanal and accessory plates, mouthparts and capitulum. With this study describing a gynandromorphic Hy. marginatum, the number of gynandromorphic tick cases has been raised to two in Turkey.

Estimating the density of honeybee colonies across their natural range to fill the gap in pollinator decline censuses.

Although pollinator declines are a global biodiversity threat, the demography of the western honeybee (Apis mellifera) has not been considered by conservationists because it is biased by the activity of beekeepers. To fill this gap in pollinator decline censuses and to provide a broad picture of the current status of honeybees across their natural range, we used microsatellite genetic markers to estimate colony densities and genetic diversity at different locations in Europe, Africa, and central Asia that had different patterns of land use. Genetic diversity and colony densities were highest in South Africa and lowest in Northern Europe and were correlated with mean annual temperature. Confounding factors not related to climate, however, are also likely to influence genetic diversity and colony densities in honeybee populations. Land use showed a significantly negative influence over genetic diversity and the density of honeybee colonies over all sampling locations. In Europe honeybees sampled in nature reserves had genetic diversity and colony densities similar to those sampled in agricultural landscapes, which suggests that the former are not wild but may have come from managed hives. Other results also support this idea: putative wild bees were rare in our European samples, and the mean estimated density of honeybee colonies on the continent closely resembled the reported mean number of managed hives. Current densities of European honeybee populations are in the same range as those found in the adverse climatic conditions of the Kalahari and Saharan deserts, which suggests that beekeeping activities do not compensate for the loss of wild colonies. Our findings highlight the importance of reconsidering the conservation status of honeybees in Europe and of regarding beekeeping not only as a profitable business for producing honey, but also as an essential component of biodiversity conservation.